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In PD, this process has dual consequences: (1) autonomous neuronal death, where GSDMD pores disrupt mitochondrial and ER membranes in dopaminergic neurons, inducing calcium overload and energy depletion, and (2) neuroinflammatory propagation, where IL-1 activates microglia and astrocytes, driving further production of TNF-, nitric oxide (NO), and ROS (O 2 - ), which activate NLRP3 in adjacent neurons [50]
doi: 10.1186/s12958-016-0205-6 79 Diamanti-KandarakisEChatzigeorgiouAPapageorgiouEKoundourasDKoutsilierisM
The cardioprotective effect of metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes is not only attributable to its glucose-lowering effects but also to its significant antihypertensive properties [33]
Individual physiology determines how those results appear in practice
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