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Electronic databases including PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were searched from inception until August 2025 using keywords such as GLP-1 receptor agonist, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, ocular disease, and neuroprotection. The search focused on identifying preclinical studies, large-scale retrospective cohort studies, and post-hoc analyses of major clinical trials that evaluated the utility and potential mechanisms of GLP-1RAs in ophthalmic diseases

Mitochondria are the primary site of energy metabolism and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production

Oral peptides face significant bioavailability challenges due to gastrointestinal degradation, though formulation advances are improving this limitation